Egypt Shadow Report 2025: Legal commitments to gender equality still fall short of reality

Egypt recently submitted its 18th and 19th periodic reports to the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR). It represented a narrative of legislative progress and policy commitments towards gender equality. Equality Now, together with a coalition of Egyptian organisations, including the Association of  Egyptian Female Lawyers (AEFL), The Egyptian Foundation for Family Development (EFFD), The Farah Foundation for Development, Tadwein for Gender Studies, and Equality Now, submitted a Shadow Report to the ACHPR. The report found that the measures highlighted by Egypt in its periodic reports, while commendable, will not deliver the promise of gender equality. 

The state of gender equality in Egypt

Egypt’s 2014 Constitution enshrines gender equality. Recent government initiatives, such as the National Strategy for the Empowerment of Egyptian Women 2030 and the introduction of tougher penalties for female genital mutilation (FGM), are commendable. 

Despite its constitutional commitments, Egypt remains one of the few African Union member states yet to ratify the Maputo Protocol, a cornerstone of women’s rights protection in Africa.. Entrenched inequalities in law and practice continue to undermine women’s and girls’ rights across all spheres of life in Egypt. 

Persistent gaps in equality before the law

As the shadow report highlights, discriminatory provisions in personal status, family, and inheritance laws in Egypt continue to limit women’s autonomy and reinforce male authority. Men retain unilateral divorce rights, while women must endure protracted and costly judicial processes or relinquish financial entitlements to obtain divorce. 

Guardianship and custody laws privilege male relatives even when mothers are primary caregivers. Women also inherit only half the share of male heirs, perpetuating intergenerational economic dependency. 

Additionally, despite increased political representation, 28% in the House of Representatives and 25% in the Cabinet, women face harassment, online abuse, and a shrinking civic space that hinders full participation. The report also notes that women human rights defenders (WHRDs) face intimidation and inadequate protection, further silencing dissenting voices.

Violence against women and girls remains endemic

Egypt lacks a comprehensive domestic violence law and does not criminalise marital rape. Article 60 of the Penal Code is still interpreted as permitting “disciplinary” violence within marriage. While penalties for FGM have been strengthened, enforcement remains weak, and survivor trust in state services is low.

Femicide and intimate partner violence also persist at alarming rates, compounded by stigma and inadequate protection systems. Refugee women and girls, particularly Sudanese communities, face compounded risks of sexual violence, trafficking, and FGM. A recent study on FGM in Egypt by Equality Now and Tadwein found that  FGM remains deeply entrenched among Sudanese refugees in Egypt, underscoring the absence of targeted outreach and inclusion of refugees in national anti-FGM efforts.

Family laws entrench women’s subordination

The legal minimum age for marriage in Egypt is 18 years, as established under Law No. 126 of 2008 (Amending the Child Law) and Article 31-bis of the Civil Status Law (Law No. 143 of 1994), which prohibits the registration of any marriage contract for individuals under eighteen. However, weak enforcement and the persistence of informal or unregistered unions, often later formalised once the girl reaches 18, continue to undermine this legal safeguard for over 118,000 girls who are continuously exposed to early and forced marriage.

Polygamy remains lawful, and women seeking to contest a polygamous marriage must prove “harm,” a burden that is difficult to meet. Obedience (referred to as ṭāʿa in Arabic) provisions penalise women who leave the marital home, even in situations of abuse, by depriving them of maintenance, while divorced mothers risk losing custody of their children if they remarry. These provisions, which date back to 1929, reflect a conception of marriage as subordination rather than partnership.  The shadow report calls for the effective enforcement of the minimum marriage age, the prohibition of polygamy, the repeal of obedience provisions, and the reform of guardianship, custody, and inheritance laws to ensure equal rights for women in accordance with the African Charter and CEDAW obligations.

Sexual and reproductive health and rights denied

Access to sexual and reproductive health services remains highly restricted. Pursuant of Articles 260–264 of the country’s Penal Code, abortion is criminalised except to save a woman’s life, excluding cases of rape, incest, or severe health risk. Maternal mortality rates remain high, especially in rural areas, where infrastructure and emergency care are weak. Adolescents and unmarried women face stigma, breaches of confidentiality, and barriers to SRHR services, while the absence of comprehensive sexuality education in schools leaves young people without crucial information and skills.  It is also limited to biological content and omits topics such as consent, gender equality, and GBV prevention. The shadow report calls on Egypt to reform abortion laws in line with international standards, improve access to youth-friendly and inclusive SRHR and maternal health services, and integrate age-appropriate, rights-based sexuality education into schools.

Economic and social inequality deepens vulnerability

Women’s labour-force participation in Egypt remains among the lowest globally at 15%, concentrated in low-paying sectors. Lack of affordable childcare, the non-recognition of joint marital property, and discriminatory inheritance laws reinforce women’s economic dependency. The report highlights the urgent need to recognise joint marital property to secure women’s economic rights and reform customary and inheritance laws that deny women access to land and productive assets.

Refugee and other marginalised women face systemic barriers

Refugee and displaced women face barriers to accessing legal documentation, employment, healthcare, and legal protection, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation and trafficking. The report attributes these barriers to the absence of a gender-sensitive asylum and refugee protection framework. Women with disabilities experience systemic discrimination in employment, education, and access to SRHR services, despite the protections under Law No. 10 of 2018, which remain poorly enforced. Elderly women and widows face inadequate social protection and limited pensions, while women in distress, such as survivors of violence, trafficking, or homelessness, often cannot access safe shelters or reintegration services. Widows and elderly women in rural areas lack access to pensions due to informal labour and a lack of documentation. The shadow report calls on Egypt to adopt a gender-sensitive refugee protection framework, expand state-run shelters and inclusive social protection measures, implement the Law No. 10 of 2018 on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities effectively, and ensure equitable access to services and justice for all vulnerable women.

A call to action

The Shadow Report makes one message clear: constitutional promises must be matched by action. Equality Now joins our partners in calling on Egypt to uphold its legal obligations and to make equality not just a constitutional principle, but a lived reality for every woman and girl.

Equality Now and our partners call on the Government of Egypt to ratify and implement the Maputo Protocol, adopt a comprehensive law on violence against women, reform SRHR provisions, and repeal discriminatory family laws. We also urge the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights to hold Egypt accountable to its regional and international obligations, ensuring that gender equality moves from policy to practice, and from rhetoric to reality.